1.5.2
According to Al-Homoud (2009), buildings with irregular tenancy might not perform thermally in the similar manner like typical business and residential amenities. A cautious envelope design united with the fitting air-conditioning organization operation strategies is needed for thermal comfort wants. Mosque is one of the most famous instances of such constructions. Mosques are normally engaged for five intermittent occasions day and night all through the year. Similar to any other construction, they have to be technologically air-conditioned to attain the necessary thermal comfort for people attending worship particularly in cruel climatic areas. The physical and functioning features typical for the intermittently engaged mosques together with the outcomes of the thermal optimization of a average size mosque within the two hot-humid and hot-dry Saudi Arabian cities of Jeddah and Riyadh are defined by Al-Homoud. The study uses a direct explore optimization method that is attached to an hourly force reproduction program. Al-Homoud offers plan guidelines for the most favourable thermal behaviour of mosques founded on the program in these two cities on top of other design and functioning aspects that have to be taken into consideration for mosques generally.
2.1.4
The effect of climate variation is possible to influence the entire aspects of existence in Saudi Arabia, comprising water resources, wellbeing, food and farming creation, fisheries, biodiversity, woodlands and rangelands. Several measures have been applied by the government and by numerous constituents of Saudi community, including the private division, technology and science organizations and, to a smaller degree, the civil community.
From the model IAP_97, the annual sum precipitation for the year 2041 indicates an increase in humidity varying between 20 – 30% in the south-western region of Saudi Arabia and a decrease of 7-18% in the other parts of the nation but for the Madianah and Makkah areas where the decline is not anticipated to be above 1% (Darfaoui & Assiri, 2010).
Saudi Arabia is principally susceptible to climate change as the majority of its ecology is receptive, its recyclable water resources are restricted, and its financial system remains extremely reliant on the exports of fossil-fuel. Whereas the Saudi population considerably rises by 2.3%, the pressure persists to influence the government’s capacity to meet the requirements of its citizens. The Saudi Arabian Government is caught up in a diversity of enhancement and adjustment activities to cope with unwanted effects of climate change on top of the reaction measures, particularly through the UNFCCC annexe 1 party that are anticipated to have varied financial and social effects on the state. Nevertheless, a vast deal stays to be executed to add in the enhancement programmes so as to encounter this worldwide and nationwide challenge (Darfaoui & Assiri, 2010).
2.1.8
The movement of the green construction has its foundation in the energy emergency of the 1970s and the inventive methods to saving power that emerged with it, together with the employ of active and inactive solar plan and tighter construction envelopes. As a holistic method in which power stays a critical constituent, the green design today also deems other ecological effects because they connect to sustainability. Therefore, green building needs an incorporated design techniques: concentrating on simply one part of a building can contain inadvertent ecological, social, or financial consequences. For instance, poorly planned energy effectual building envelopes can outcome in poor interior ecological quality. Moreover, some reused substance latex paint could contain higher explosive organic composite emissions compared to other ecologically favourable paints.
2.1.10
These values comprise of the regulations appearing herein, as well as any detailed explanation of the ecological protection principles and mechanisms of application as given by the Presidency from occasion to occasion. The Presidency is the single power to interpret and decide the connotation and extent of these principles. The Presidency has the mandate to adjust or otherwise add-on these principles as necessary (PME, 2001).
These principles consist of the regulations appearing herein, including any detailed explanation of the ecological protection standards and means of use as given by the Presidency from period to period. The Presidency is the lone power to construe and decide the implication and extent of these principles. The Presidency has the authority to adjust or otherwise increase these principles as needed (PME, 2001).
In spite of the truth that the Saudi financial system depends mainly on oil, Saudi Arabia has secured no efforts to tackle worldwide environmental matters like biodiversity and climate change. Saudi Arabia accepted the Convention on Biological Diversity in 2001 and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1994. Building on these connections, the UNDP, in collaboration with the National Commission for Wildlife and Development (NCWCD, the Presidency of Meteorology and Environment (PME), King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), the Ministry of Petroleum and Minerals (MOPM), the Ministry of Water and Electricity (MOWE), and other connections, promotes the Saudi Government to attain the outset of an allowing surroundings for Saudi Arabia to suit its ecological priorities inside the 8th and 9th Development Strategies. Technological support given to the various government entities stated above is at the hub of the UNDP’s effort in Saudi Arabia (United Nations Development Programme, 2010).
Projects in biodiversity aspire at guaranteeing the organization and operation of secluded regions training centres. Conservation of biodiversity is one of the key targets of the necessary ecological policy of Saudi Arabia and also wildlife protection in order to maintain environmental stability, specifically with regard to rare, susceptible and endangered plants and animals. With respect to power, the UNDP functions with KACST to suit the rapid rising energy and power demand over well-organized and reasonable utilization arrangements. The water division administration is another region where UNDP brings express back up to the growth of planned water sector organization strategies over broad nation discussions of the MOWE-WB Cooperative Program. The general goal is to guarantee the supply of a sustainable growth in terms consumption of water.
Ensuring Saudi Arabia faces its global involvements is tackled through some projects with the United Nations Development Programmes (United Nations Development Programme, 2010). “The First National Communication on Climate Change” was presented to the UNFCCC and accepted optimistically by the worldwide community (United Nations Development Programme, 2010). The activities incorporated developing a catalogue of GHG emissions and deductions, valuation and assessment of stages engaged by Saudi Arabia to state alleviation; assessment of susceptibility of Saudi Arabia to changes in climate; collecting and describing the nationwide programs being planned and instigated to assist the adaptation to change in climate (United Nations Development Programme, 2010). On top of this, the National Energy Efficiency Programme (NEEP) concentrates on end-use power effectiveness, as it is the solitary most efficient means of dropping GHG discharges to fight change in climate.
Saudi Arabia as well has experienced growing levels of power utilize with augmented financial growth. This brings difficulties for sustainable employ of oil deposits. The NEEP was initiated in 2003 and its attempts include:
The lack of knowledge and the unrestrained employ of groundwater in the last 20 years have led to emerge of serious apprehensions for the long-term feasibility of the non-recyclable groundwater reserves in Saudi Arabia. “The Incorporated Water Resources Management” scheme, introduced in 2004, concentrates on: 1. A reassessing of groundwater perception approximation and planning across Saudi Arabia; 2. Groundwork of the financial and economic evaluation of present and other strategy options; 3. Improvement of an institutional reinforcement and individual capability construction programme marking at enhancing the capabilities of organizations and persons in the water department towards more efficient and effective choice-making and work performance; and 4. Supporting the MWE in checking the expansion of the groundwater evaluation projects (United Nations Development Programme, 2010).
The Saudi government over the previous decade has provided important consideration to defending the environment, preserving biodiversity and natural possessions, and offering an improved quality of existence. It has added considerably to sustainable growth, through the introduction of a number of rules, strategies and reports by bodies playing key roles in attaining sustainability values in the state. These bodies and their responsibilities are depicted in Table 2.5 (Al-Yami & Price, 2006).
The Saudi Government has assumed a dynamic position in instigating sustainable growth in regard with the Seventh Five-Year Development Plan (2000-2004). The Saudi regime accepted Agenda 21 In December 1994 that was presented at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, as the global blueprint for sustainable growth. Some ecological targets were implemented like reducing the height of contamination, managing desertification, forming an ecological information system, implementing a coastal organization plan and preserving countrywide wildlife (Al-Yami & Price, 2006).
The Universal Environmental Regulations were endorsed in October 2001 and the administrative by-laws in September 2003 that resulted in the engagement of the Presidency of Meteorology and Environment (PME), the key organization accountable for the enforcement of the ecological rules in harmonization with other suitable agencies. Moreover, Saudi Arabia became a member of the following global environment conferences during the Seventh Five-Year Development Strategy: the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (PME, 2005), the increment of Kyoto Protocol, accepted in January 2005; United Nations Desertification Control; and the United Nations Bio-Diversity Convention. The PME organize with connected agencies on the execution and follow-up of some ecological conventions linked to their responsibilities, comprising: the Vienna Ozone Layer Protection Convention; the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Waste; and the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer (Al-Yami & Price, 2006; PME, 2005).
Currently, the Saudi Government is organizing a framework of the National Strategy for Health and Environment, the National and Action Programme for Desertification Control, the National Environment Strategy, the National Strategy for Biodiversity, the National Forestry Strategy, and the National Plan for Management of Coastal Regions in stipulations of nationwide environment policies and developing connected rules. Moreover, it has endorsed water resource preservation and utilization rationalisation, on top of sewage water recycling rules. The Ministry of Electricity and Water in the meantime has been revising its water possessions studies by means of devising the National Water Plan (Al-Yami & Price, 2006; JEG, 2015).
The Ministry of Rural Affairs AND Municipal has presented a guideline on water resources preservation to all its divisions and consultants, notifying them that it is compulsory for the entire novel construction and region planning to be planned to employ conventional plumbing machinery in alignment with the novel Technical Saudi Standards and Codes so as to make the most of the water-efficient utilize. Licenses for opening building will not be given, and services like water provision and electricity will not be available for these schemes and regions until the pertinent principles and needs have been satisfied (Al-Yami & Price, 2006; JEG, 2015).
The Eighth Five-Year Development Strategy (2005-2009) has been drafted, with a extensive calculated vision of the financial system and growth inspired toward implementing sustainable expansion. The key goal is to suit people’s resource, educational and spiritual requirements and to guarantee their health and excellence of existence. The goals of the development plan are to attain sustainable growth and eradicate any unconstructive effects on natural possessions, the quality of existence and public wellbeing whereas shielding the surroundings against destructive actions and practices. This part emphasizes the objectives, strategies, and goals of ecological operations in the Eighth Five-Year Development Plan (Al-Yami & Price, 2006; JEG, 2015).
The objectives of the plan are, protecting the environment against pollution. Improving quality of life and public health. Achieving sustainable development through a closer harmony between human activities and the protection of natural resources; conserving non-renewable natural resources and searching for alternative resources. Developing and protecting wildlife to ensure their sustainability.
The Policies involved are: Enhancing the efficiency of mechanisms to protect the environment and conserve natural resources. Reassessing and updating environmental standards. Enhancing databases of weather, climate and the environment. Enhancing the role of the private sector in the protection of the environment, natural resources and wildlife conservation, especially in adopting ―green‖ materials and environmentally friendly processes in industry. Developing the institutional capacities of environmental agencies. Introducing sustainability awareness issues into school curricula and the media.
The Targets are conducting studies on the environmental effects of new factories as part of licensing requirements. Updating air, soil and groundwater databases as well as surface and coastal water pollution standards. Spreading environmental awareness programmes. Stimulating the formation of environmental protection societies in all regions of the country. Strengthening inspection of the environmental status of existing industrial establishments to ensure new industries’ compliance with environmental protection requirements. Broadening the meteorological monitoring network to cover all Saudi territories. Reassessing and modifying school curricula to cover environmental and awareness issues beginning in primary schools. Coordinating with the ministry of culture and information to preparing shows, programmes and TV serials focusing on environmental issues, as well as providing coverage to regional and international environmental news and issues.
In response to this need and concern, assessment methods such as the Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM), the LEED Green Building Rating System, Green Star and GBTool have been developed to evaluate how successful any development is with regards to balancing energy, environment and ecology, considering both the social and the technological aspects of projects.
An environmental building assessment method reflects the significance of the concept of sustainability in the context of building design and subsequent onsite construction work. The primary role of an environmental building assessment method is to provide a comprehensive assessment of a building’s environmental characteristics using a common and verifiable set of criteria and targets in order for owners and designers to achieve higher environmental standards. It also enhances the environmental awareness of building practices and lays down a fundamental direction for the building industry towards environmental protection and sustainability. It provides a way to structure environmental information, an objective assessment of building performance, and a measure of progress towards sustainability (Ding, 2008).
Most building evaluation methods use a single criterion, such as energy use, indoor comfort or air quality, to indicate the overall performance of a building (Cooper, 1999). As environmental issues become more urgent, more comprehensive building assessment methods are required to evaluate performance across a broader range of environmental considerations (Ding, 2008). Ideally, a rating system should be practical and cost-effective; its assessments should be reliable and repeatable; and there should be general agreement over the criteria used (Bamatraf, 2009).
2.2
Like many developing countries in the Middle East and North Africa, Saudi Arabia faces a sharply rising demand for power. According to the Saudi Energy Company, 79.5% of the total energy consumption by buildings (Saudi Electricity Company, 2013). Demand is driven by population growth, a rapidly expanding industrial sector led by the development of petrochemical cities; HVAC alone consumes 70% during the summer months, and electricity rates are heavily subsidized. Most of the Saudi energy generating capacity comes from fossil fuel, but Saudi Arabia plans to diversify fuels used for electricity generation, in part to free up oil for export. The planned 2020 capacity totals include 55 GW of renewable fuelled capacity, of which 41 GW will be solar and the planned generation increases to 2032, including 17 GW of nuclear power (Energy Information Administration, 2014). In addition to efficiency, increases are designed to eliminate the need for an additional capacity.
2.2.1
A site ZEB makes at least as much energy as it utilizes annually, when accounted for at the site. 2. A source ZEB makes at least as much energy as it utilizes annually, when accounted for at the source. 3. In a cost ZEB, the amount of money the utility pays the building owner for the energy the building exports to the grid is at least equal to the amount the owner pays the utility for the energy services and energy used over the year. 4. An emissions-based ZEB produces at least as much emissions-free renewable energy as it uses from emissions-producing energy sources.
2.2.3
The Building Energy Rating Certificate (BER) is part of the Energy Performance of Buildings EU Directive. The aim of the Directive is to make the energy performance of a building transparent and available to potential purchasers or tenants. The BER is simply a check to see how good a building is at using energy and will measure how much energy and carbon the building may typically use or produce over a given year. It is only concerned with the fabric of the building and does not take account of occupant behaviour (“Energy Performance of Buildings Directive,” 2010).
The certificate is similar to the energy label for domestic electrical appliances, and rates the energy performance of the building on a scale from A to G. The BER covers energy use for space heating, water heating, ventilation and lighting, calculated on the basis of standard occupancy and is valid for 10 years from the date of issue baring any material alterations to the building.
Policies in Australia: The National Australian Built Environment Rating System (NABERS) is a national program designed to rate a building’s operational performance against a number of benchmarks. NABERS Energy, previously known as ABGR, was originally developed by the NSW Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA); this department was renamed ‘Sustainable Energy Programs’ and located in the Department of Energy, Utilities and Sustainability (DEUS) before it became the Department of Environment and Climate Change (DECC) in May 2007. NABERS is available for office buildings, hotels, homes and retail. It currently measures the operational impacts on the environment in the areas of energy, water, waste and indoor environment quality (NABERS, 2010). NABERS Energy benchmarks the greenhouse gas emissions from the operational performance of buildings on a scale of one to five, with one having the most greenhouse gas emissions and five the least. A NABERS Energy rating of three stars represents current market ‘best practice’. The Green Star Rating system utilizes the NABERS Energy methodology in order to assess the predicted energy consumption of a building design (NABERS, 2010).
2.2.5
In the United States, most buildings are constructed to meet minimum energy code requirements; therefore, energy codes contribute to sustainability by saving energy and protecting the environment (VanGeem, 2014). Energy codes are effective in reducing per capita energy usage. The per capita energy use in California has remained at steady levels due to the government’s active use and enforcement of energy codes for buildings, even while energy use in the rest of the country has increased (VanGeem, 2014).
The implementing and enforcing of energy codes will potentially result in fewer power plants and natural resources being needed to provide electricity and natural gas. This also means fewer harmful emissions to the atmosphere. Such emissions have been linked to pollution, acid rain, and global warming.
Prescriptive paths are easy-to-use tables that contain required minimum and maximum values. Performance paths are used to trade on energy saving measure for another.
In prescriptive codes, opaque elements such as walls and roofs will have requirements in terms of thermal resistance (R-values) and thermal transmittance (U-value). The thermal transmittance includes the effects of insulation as well as framing members and interior and exterior finishes. The “overall” R-value is the reciprocal of the thermal transmittance. The “added” R-value is the R-value of the added insulation, which is a simpler way of stating the requirement since insulation materials are labelled for R-value. The effect of framing and building materials other than insulation does not have to be calculated for prescriptive tables with “added” R-value requirements. For windows, the requirements are in terms of thermal transmittance and solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC). Some codes have pre-calculated U-factors for walls, roofs, or windows so that the values can be easily compared to the prescriptive requirements.
Performance paths in energy codes generally allow designers to utilize an easy-to-use computer trade-off program or a detailed energy budget method. Generally, the more complicated the compliance tool, the more flexibility the designer is allowed. Trade-off tools also allow for innovation in design and materials. There are many programs for determining commercial building compliance for ASHRAE 90.1, IECC, and many state codes. Detailed computer-based energy analysis programs such as DOE2 and Visual DOE4.0 calculate yearly energy consumption on an hourly basis.
2.3.1
The building enclosure system consists of a group of individual systems such as walls, roof, foundation, floors, windows, and doors. These elements help to regulate the indoor environment. The integration of all enclosure systems and their components is critical in controlling the inside environment at comfortable conditions during the winter and summer seasons. The building envelope system can be further categorized as: opaque and transparent envelope system. Opaque envelope system includes walls, roof, and floors while transparent envelope system includes windows, skylights and glass doors (Al-Homoud, 2009; S. Al-Saadi & Budaiwi, 2007; S. N. Al-Saadi, 2006).
2.3.2
These factors include:
- The code requirements such as structural loads, wind loads, drainage, fire protection, health and safety.
- Design considerations such as thermal considerations, vapour and air barrier protection, slope and drainage, building expansion and contraction, service temperature parameters, compatibility, deck type and ease of attachment, suitability of existing surfaces, surface contaminants, building use, interior considerations, aesthetics.
- Construction considerations: the availability of materials and labour, construction schedule and protection during construction, building location, building height and shape, roof size and number of projections.
- Maintenance considerations: owner’s preference and experience, susceptibility to damage and accessibility for inspection fife expectancy.
- Cost considerations: initial cost, life cycle cost.
- Other considerations: technical literature and support, warranty provisions, experience of designers.
The application of surface treatments such as light coatings, light colour tiles on exterior surface of building envelope and low-emissive sheets on exterior/interior surfaces have significantly improved the overall thermal performance of buildings in hot climates. In air conditioned buildings, the surface treatment affect the cooling load while in unconditioned buildings, it affects the interior surface temperature which consequently influence the occupants thermal comfort (S. Al-Saadi & Budaiwi, 2007; Alrubaih, 2008).
This mechanism helps in achieving a thermally comfortable environment at a low energy cost. Two important characteristics of massive building envelope that determine its dynamic behaviour can be defined: a decrement factor and a time lag (h). The decrement factor is the ratio between the maximum indoor and outdoor temperature. The time lag is the time between the occurrence of maximum outdoor and indoor temperature.
2.3.5
The constant exchange of warmth between the construction envelope and its exterior and indoor setting is much reliant on the thermal features of the construction envelope. The main thermal features that affect the indoor air heat and thereafter the energy utilization include the transmission of heat, storage of heat, solar heat increase and rates of infiltration (Athiens, Fazio, Marsh, & Rao, 1997) (B Givoni, 1976) has recognized numerous features of building envelope that influence the rate of transfer of heat in and out of the structure and subsequently affecting the indoor thermal circumstances and the occupants comfort. The features of solid building envelope comprise the thermal resistance, thermal conductivity, and heat capability, clearness to radiation of diverse wavelengths, plane convective coefficient, and surface emission features like absorptivity, emissivity, and reflectivity.
3.1.1
Over the previous 50 years, factually hundreds of construction force programs have been established, improved and are in utilize. The principal equipment in the building power field are the entire-building energy reproduction programs that offer users main building performance pointers like energy employ and demand, hotness, moisture, and expenses. In that time, some relative surveys of power programs have been in print, varying from inclusive reviews of building energy reproduction programs to surveys of single themes like day-lighting equipment or energy reviewing.
A report by Drury B. Crawley, Hand, Kummert, and Griffin, 2008) comprises more than five pages of comprehensive references for the reviews in addition to the 20 apparatus. The report has thorough tables comparing the characteristics and abilities of the programs in the subsequent 14 classes: General Modelling Qualities, Zone Loads, Construction Envelope and Day-lighting, Permeation, Aeration and Multizone Airflow, Recyclable Energy Systems, Electrical Mechanisms and Equipment, HVAC Equipment, HVAC Systems, Ecological Emissions, Financial Evaluation, Climate Data Accessibility, Results Reporting, Corroboration, and Consumer Interface, Connections to Other Programs, and Accessibility.
The process will be approved in accordance with ASHRAE suggestions for calculating kit and lighting power thicknesses. For every region of the building, the whole amount of apparatus and lighting fittings will be counted and employing ASHRAE principles, the power thicknesses of equipment will be computed. The whole number of tenants will be as well counted. Information concerning HVAC systems, chillers, and AHUs will be gathered as per the plan information, kit tags, as well as the data offered by the building director.
Plan designer is a completely marked Energy Plus consumer interface appropriate for employ at any phase of the design procedure. The Design Builder foremost released in 2005 permits a broad variety of building kinds to be simulated employing the newest edition of Energy Plus. Sophisticated design choices like natural aeration, daylight management, twofold facades, chilled rays, and heated bases can be measured for their influence on the construction ecological performance, cost, comfort, and daylight accessibility. The Energy Plus mechanism applied inside the Design Builder has been experienced versus the IEA BESTest construction weight and HVAC experiments. Findings are accessible under Testing and Corroboration on the Energy Plus web spot.
3.2
The style was taken up from a research by Raftery, Keane, and O’Donnell (2012). Under this method, constraint values in the last calibrated sample reference the basis of information employed to create changes to the original model. Besides the evidence-founded methodology, this research also explains the zoning procedure that symbolizes the actual building.
3.2.1
A newspaper six-story headquarters office construction is the first model. The building is situated in Dammam, Saudi Arabia at 50o towards east and 26o towards North. The entire floor region of the construction is 12,500m2 and its floor-to-floor altitude is 5.25m. The building’s walls comprise mostly of 200mm solid block and 50mm polyurethane filling. The roof comprises of 200mm solid block and 50mm polyurethane filling. The panes are double glazed having 12mm air gap and a shading coefficient of 0.3 and a noticeable light radiance of 0.7. The HVAC mechanisms employed in the building is continuous air volume (CAV) mechanism having 24 air-handling units (AHUs) serving the diverse areas of the building. The building cooling is given by ice-cold water from the industry through four countering chillers. The entire the chillers are managed through the cooling insist of the AHUs. Every chillers contain six compressors, six chillers pump motors, and 10 fan motors. Overall capability of one chiller is 739KW. The entire accustomed areas in the building contain set positions between 21 and 22C for winter and 23 and 25C for summer. Timers are used to control the entire AHUs and after 4 p.m. it is put closed for several floors that normally become vacant after that occasion. The construction has six elevators to serve it. The system of lighting serving the construction comprises primarily of fluorescent lamps.
The construction is engaged with diverse office apparatus including individual computers, scanners, printers, and other electric apparatus. The majority of the construction is employed like offices with two meeting rooms in every floor and one mosque on the initial floor as well as a canteen within the ground floor.
Every zone of the construction was physically examined with the collaboration of the construction operations and preservation workers to attain information concerning the construction lighting, apparatus and tenancy. For the intention of getting information of construction envelope thermal features, the structure architectural and engineering drafts were studied. For every zone of the construction, the whole number of apparatus and lighting fittings and number of tenants were calculated. Information concerning HVAC mechanisms, Air Handling Unit’s (AHU’s) and chillers was gathered for each the design information, kit tags, in addition to the information given by the construction manager.
At this phase, the forecaster updates the model founded on the data that has been collected to date. Each time alterations are made to the sample it is necessary that a novel edition is shaped. The most familiar technique for explaining areas for a sample follows a 5 region per engaged floor method, one main zone and four border areas.
There are rules that describe types of regions in constructions by space purpose (ASHARE, 2007). These acts as a helpful opening point for recognizing space purposes and developing region kinds in the replica. Immediately the zone-kinds have been described, these are used to the sample floor strategy consequently together with zone-kind particular parameters like tenancy schedules, illumination loads, and conditioning techniques.
This region-typing procedure provides a further detailed floor strategy than the conventional core-and-four-perimeter means. Even though the outcomes of this technique might not symbolize every individual thermal region in the construction with a thermal sector in the sample, zones are merely agglomerated while the imprecision’s invited are at a minimum. The recent amendment of the model has been comprehensively reconsidered to guarantee that the data attained has been modelled accurately and that the productions are sensible. Assessing the simulations outcomes quality attained is a necessary procedure in entire construction energy modelling.
4.5.1
A price analysis has been done for diverse kinds of glazing. Like a convenient manner of assessing the advantages of the likely energy saving characteristic, the appearance “payback” is employed. This is the amount of years to the nearby entire year, when the expenditure of the venture in the power saving feature is recuperated from either power reserves or energy reserves and the reserves created in capital price of the space conditioning industry. The rate of depreciation is decided from the anticipated existence of the object. The price analyses are founded on energy employ and do not comprise any assessment of greenhouse gas discharge expenses.
The construction zones and the building types, internal weights and air conditioning appliances, are of base situation A1a employed in this study. Further, whereas the construction, illumination and air-conditioning appliances are sufficiently established for energy reproduction, they are not adequately detailed for precise costing. Subsequently, generic price structures were established for the filling, glazing and space conditioning expenses.
The glazing expenses employed are for a set of particular glasses for an agent window dimension matched with a distinctive edge. This offers a generic price for the array of glasses. The edge was supposed to have minimal consequence on the rate of transfer of heat between the unrestrained and air conditioned surroundings. In practice, the amalgamation of the window dimension, the glass characteristics, the frame qualities and any shading would require to be assessed to decide the general features of the glazing and the particular combination price.
4.6
A corroboration procedure was created on Al-Youm office construction in this episode. The office construction is situated in Dammam, Saudi Arabia. The last calibrated replica stands for the construction to a high extent of detail employing a huge number of areas and employs calculated lighting and plug weight information in the reproduction at hourly periods. The outcomes demonstrate excellent connection with the calculated energy utilization data for the examined year from 2000 to 2004, showing the efficiency of the method. The confirmation offered with adequate calibration consequence of -1.31% yearly diverse.
This chapter analysed an active case review and been regulated to its real measured statistics. The chapter explained a methodical, evidence-founded method for the calibration of this sample. The situation study construction was a 12,500m2, six-floor office construction situated in Dammam, Saudi Arabia. The last calibrated replica symbolizes the building to a great level of element employing a huge number of areas and employs calculated illumination and plug weight data in the reproduction at hourly gaps. The outcomes demonstrate monthly average bias error (MBE) -0.05, and the periodical basis mean squared error (CV (RMSE) fewer than 5% correlation with the calculated HVAC utilization information for the examined year from 2000 to 2004, representing the efficiency of the method.
Besides, in this section an energy stipulation for window were established. Reproduction modelling of HVAC mechanism energy employ in edge spaces having windows within their facades demonstrates that there is a connection between approximated energy employ and the region of the panes, its thermal features and its course. The connection was indicated by linear regressions founded on the SHGC and the windows thermal transmittance having constants that explain for the impacts of outdoor surroundings and orientation. Whereas the dealings have been established on the glass features they can be used on windows where the pane features are established from the mixture of the frame, glass, and mullion features.
5.5
For all new office buildings lighting controls must be provided so as to allow lighting to be switched off when daylight levels are adequate or when spaces are unoccupied and to allow occupants control over lighting levels.
In offices facilities all lighting zones must be fitted with occupant sensor controls capable of switching the electrical lights on and off, according to occupancy unless lighting is required for safety purposes.
It is recommended that, in offices, the artificial lighting in spaces within 6m in depth from exterior windows must be fitted with lighting controls incorporating photocell sensors capable of adjusting the level of electric lighting to supplement natural daylight. The combined artificial and daylight must provide an illumination level at the working plane between 400 and 500 lux. When there is a 100% daylight, the lux levels may exceed 500 lux.
6.1
Chapter 2 showed that the CO2 emissions for the base year in Saudi Arabia in 1990 estimated in the first national communication (FNC) to the total led 140,958Gg and CO2 falls were 15,240Gg. The energy department emits 90% of the total CO2 emissions, followed by the industrial sector 8% and agriculture 2%. Saudi Arabia is primarily exposed to climate change, while its economy remains highly dependent on fossil-fuel exports. The Saudi Arabian Government is involved in a variety of improvement and adaptation measures to cope with undesirable impacts of climate change as well as with response measures, especially by the annexe 1 party of the UNFCCC, which are expected to have diverse economic and social impacts on the country. However, a great deal remains to be done to contribute in the improvement programmes in order to face this global and national challenge.
6.2.1
The Saudi building market is under continuous change. New products come into the market and existing products become improved and more cost effective. The energy prices and solutions for cooling and heating are changing. This will change the limits for what is possible and reasonable to set as minimum requirements in building codes. Also will occupants have new requirements for comfort in buildings and new appliances come in the buildings and will use energy and increase losses from all these appliances. The energy efficiency requirements for new buildings are one of the drivers for these changes in the built industry. With the changed possibilities and the changed conditions for the products and prices will change the possibility for different solutions. New and more efficient products will lead to the possibility of increasing the requirements for energy efficiency over time.
The increased requirements for energy building codes will similarly lead to the development of a better solutions and improvements of products. Energy Buildings codes requirements can be a driver for further development, in particular if they are announced in advance, giving the built industry time to prepare and develop the right solutions to make the new requirements as cost effective as possible. These requirements must be reviewed in regular bases and updated in order to reflect technical progress in the building sector.
6.2.2
Zero Energy Buildings, LEED buildings and other low energy buildings are driving the best part of the market and help to demonstrate new technology as to develop new energy efficiency solutions and products. Building Codes on the other hand will remove the least efficient part of the new buildings and force these to be more efficient. A strong policy on both building codes and ultra-low energy buildings can play together and be a common driver for highly energy efficient buildings. In the long term, buildings need to have an energy consumption which is very low or even Zero Energy to be sustainable.
6.2.3
For new buildings most regulations are far from the least cost optimum if costs are calculated for 30 years based on investment, interest rates, mortgage costs, and accumulated energy costs.
A targeted policy to increase the development of more efficient solutions through demonstration projects, research and development could accelerate this development. Such a policy could help Zero Energy Buildings to become a possible solution in Saudi Arabia.
The conclusion is that passive houses are already a possible alternative in many cases, and while zero net energy buildings will increase costs, they are not theatrical and it must be expected that these building can become practicable in within the next 2 decades.
The potential for energy efficiency in buildings is very large both in new and in existing buildings. Over time the energy efficiency in buildings can be reduced by more than 50 % alone with measures, which are possible already today in other countries. Buildings have a long lifetime and it is possible to divide the consumption over a long period, but there is a need for taking action today. There is a special need to reduce consumption in new buildings and it is possible. To obtain these large potentials there is a need to take actions immediately and to set up a package of policies and initiatives to improve the efficiency in buildings in Saudi Arabia. These policies have to address all major barriers and there is need to set emphasis on both highly efficient buildings as for increasing the efficiency in the least effective new buildings as to set up strategies for development and demonstration.
6.3
A key findings from this study is the realisation that the large potential for energy conservation is in new buildings, the Saudi government must overcome the barriers to energy efficiency in the building sector. Policies and measures to improve buildings’ efficiency include that the Saudi government should set, enforce and regularly update requirements for energy efficiency in new buildings. These requirements can appear independently or within building codes. Requirements for efficiency should be based on least costs over the building life span. However which measures are more effective.
Energy efficiency in new buildings is a very efficient way to obtain savings, but many barriers work against energy efficiency. Building codes is a way to ensure and increase the energy efficiency in the vast majority of new buildings and can ensure a certain minimum standard in the buildings. Standards can be set either in building codes or as a specific standard for efficiency and they can be set on a national or a federal state level. Buildings codes should reflect the least cost over time and not just the incremental costs for the buildings. Since the technology and the economy changes fast there is a need for regularly update of the standards.
Zero energy buildings are becoming more and more economic cost effective, but are still a more expensive solution than traditional buildings also seen over time. Support, demonstration projects, research and development is needed to mature this option and to bring these buildings in the market. Zero Energy Buildings should be the target for future Saudi buildings codes. A path should be set up to reach this target.
On the longer term only zero energy buildings will be a sustainable solution. Zero Energy Buildings should be set as a target for future building codes or energy efficiency standards to send a message to the market and to ensure the development of good solutions. Financial restrains for new buildings preventing energy efficiency should be removed to ensure that buildings can be cost optimized over the building life span. Financial barriers and maximum loans can be a barrier for increased efficiency. Information activities should be targeted on the increase of the understanding of energy efficiency and the cost benefits by these institutions.
The Saudi government should set, enforce and regularly update requirements for energy efficiency in new buildings. These requirements can appear independently or within building codes. Requirements for efficiency should be based on least costs over 40 years. Energy efficiency in new buildings is a very efficient way to obtain savings, but many barriers work against energy efficiency. Building codes is a way to ensure and increase the energy efficiency in the vast majority of new buildings and can ensure a certain minimum standard in the buildings. Standards can be set either in building codes or as a specific standard for efficiency and they can be set on a national level. Buildings codes should reflect the least cost over time and not just the incremental costs for the buildings. Since the technology and the economy changes fast there is a need for regularly update of the standards.
The Saudi government should lead by example and make new governmental buildings optimized for life costs over building life span. New public buildings and in particular buildings owned by the Saudi government should show a good example for the citizens and the companies. In particular public buildings should therefore be built based on a life time approach making these buildings a least as energy efficient and cost effective as possible over lifetime. Public building could even be used for demonstration to facilitate the development of even more efficient buildings. Governments should be the first to build zero energy buildings. The Saudi government should set up a package of initiative to address the barriers for energy efficiency in new buildings. Since there are many barriers that work against energy efficient buildings in Saudi Arabia for both new and existing buildings, there is a need for different initiatives to remove these barriers.
The Saudi government should study the efficiency in buildings and determine the most important barriers, which work against efficiency in buildings, and then set up a package of policies to remove the most important of these barriers.
The Further Research and Development based in Saudi Arabia should be undertaken in buildings including in development and intelligent design of highly energy efficient buildings.
Although the energy potentials are huge in with measures which already exist and are feasible even today, then this potential could be increased further by research and development. If the potentials for zero energy, the total potential in the building sector will increase substantial over the longer term.
